Céline Ventura Teixeira
Research project
Mirabilia at the Crossroads of Worlds: The Reception of Art Objects and Precious Materials from the Indies in the Mediterranean Region (16th century)
Project summary
Aztec-Mexica masks made of turquoise, obsidian mirrors, jade from New Spain, emeralds from New Granada or bezoars from the Indies, the aim is to analyse the varying degrees of reception, interpretation and reworking within Mediterranean artistic centres. Moving beyond mere collecting or the all-too-frequently applied ‘exotic’ dimension, this study proposes to examine these artefacts and precious materials through the lens of chronicles, travel accounts and treatises on art, in order to reconstruct the complexity of the perspectives held regarding these materials and the knowledge they convey. From Lisbon to Venice, via Seville, Madrid and Rome, this project aims to trace the circulation of these objects and shed light on the lives of these works of art, whose materiality—whether concrete or symbolic—manifests itself differently depending on the contexts and societies that appropriate them. By emphasising the mobility of these objects and the density of the networks they weave, this research examines the dynamics of creation and exchange which, transcending geographical and disciplinary boundaries, form the basis of an art history characterised by ‘intertwined destinies’ and invite us to shift our perspective.
Turquoise masks and Aztec-Mexica ‘smoking mirrors’
Presented to Pope Clement VII in 1533 by the Dominican friar Domingo de Betanzos, two knife handles and two masks inlaid with semi-precious stones, one of which bears the effigy of the Aztec-Mexican god Yacateuctli, epitomise the fascination generated by the arts and techniques of the New Worlds. The anonymous Descrittione dell’Indie occidentale describes these masks, adorned with turquoise, mother-of-pearl and malachite, in laudatory terms, raising a host of questions regarding the nature and quality of the gemstones used. This account serves as a historical record of a cultural and artistic encounter whose reception, beyond mere wonder, prompts reflection on the quality of the precious stones employed. The ‘mirabilia’ that reached the shores of the Mediterranean sealed a cultural pact, the impact of which is expressed through the emergence of concepts such as ‘ingenio’,‘agudeza’, ‘sutileza’ and ‘policia’. These various terms, used by Bartolomé de las Casas, Francisco de Vitoria and Bernardino de Sahagún, reflect the recognition of the technical expertise developed not only by goldsmiths but also by Aztec-Mexica gem-cutters, who challenged European techniques – a subject which will be analysed here.
Aztec-Mexica and Inca obsidian mirrors, just like the mosaic masks, reflect the ingenuity, skill and diligence of the master stonecutters in the new territories. The lustre and refractive properties of this stone explain its use in the creation of mirrors, as evidenced by the Codex Tepetlaoztoc or Codex Kingsborough. A magical instrument reserved for priests and sorcerers, the obsidian mirror symbolised the power of the god Tezcatlipoca – whose name meant ‘smoky mirror’ – lord of the underworld. Sent by Hernán Cortés to Charles V, these mirrors fascinated and aroused curiosity. Although obsidian had been known since the time of Pliny, its rediscovery led to the creation of original works in the field of goldsmithing. It was at the crossroads of narratives and treatises that European artists found themselves, and they subsequently embraced these materials.
Precious and semi-precious stones from India: description and presentation
During the 16th century, the trade in and consumption of precious and semi-precious stones increased in line with the volume of shipments returning from overseas territories. These ‘mirabilia’ were initially introduced through a wealth of travel literature that spread throughout the Mediterranean basin. From Pietro Martire d’Anghiera to Giovanni Battista Ramusio, via Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo and Nicolas Monardes, these humanists and scholars disseminated new knowledge relating to the use of precious and semi-precious stones from both the West and East Indies. The search for a lexicon capable of capturing this novelty and rarity thus constituted the first ‘shaping’ of these materials, with their new physical qualities, which were gradually emerging within the visual realm.
This sense of wonder gives way to the practical study of gemstones in the field of goldsmithing and jewellery-making. El Quilatador de la plata, oro, y piedras preciosas, written by Juan de Arphe and published in 1572, follows in the tradition of technical and artistic treatises published in early modern Spain. The technical considerations it sets out therefore prompt reflection on how a master goldsmith must adapt his craft, as an emerald will not require the same work as a diamond or a ruby. Italy, too, showed a keen interest in and enthusiasm for gemmological knowledge. As early as 1568, Benvenuto Cellini had outlined in Due trattati uno intorno alle otto principali arti dell’oreficeria the different properties of sapphires, emeralds, rubies and diamonds, not to mention beryls, topazes and amethysts, which were then classified according to their hardness or physical characteristics. From the raw material to the finished piece, goldsmiths and gem cutters put their knowledge and technical skills to the test to bring out the full brilliance of these precious stones.
The Indian bezoar
A taste for the artificial and the marvellous became increasingly prominent during the second half of the 16th century, a period when experimentation was on the rise in workshops across both the Iberian Peninsula and the New Worlds. Mentioned as far back as antiquity in the treatises of Dioscorides, the bezoar stone embodies the convergence of imagination and craftsmanship. This ovoid concretion, originating from the stomach of the goat Capra aegagrus and native to Persia and India, was highly prized by European societies. The Eastern bezoar, or Goa bezoar – over which the Portuguese held a monopoly until 1580 – was regarded as unique, original and effective in treating poisoning. The special status accorded to bezoars from the American Viceroyalties can be explained by their curative properties and ‘energetic power’ which, according to Nicolas Monardes, determined their value. Spanish, Portuguese and Italian workshops thus became new laboratories for formal and technical experimentation, keeping pace with the materials arriving at the docks of Lisbon and Seville. The combination of this foreign material with a goldsmith’s setting in the European tradition embodies a ‘combinatorial art’ or Ars combinatoria, revealing the formal and material experiments that characterised the second half of the 16th century.
Biography
Céline Ventura Teixeira has been Maître de conférences in Modern Art History at Aix Marseille Université since September 2019 and specialises in the arts of the Iberian Peninsula. A research fellow at the Institut National d’Histoire de l’art (2009–2013), she subsequently served as a visiting researcher at the Bard Graduate Centre (New York), before winning the Fondation des Treilles Young Researchers’ Prize and undertaking postdoctoral research at Labex-CAP (National Institute of Art History / Sèvres – National Manufactory and Museum). Her research focuses on the decorative arts, ornamentation and jewellery, examined through the lens of the circulation of models, techniques, ideas and artists between the Iberian Peninsula and both the East and West Indies. During her André Chastel (INHA)/Villa Medici research fellowship, she focused on the reception of precious and semi-precious stones from the Americas and the East Indies within the artistic, intellectual and diplomatic circles of 16th-century Rome. She is currently working with Sophie-Bérangère Singlard (Aix-Marseille University–CAER) on the translation and critical edition of Juan de Arphe’s Quilatador de oro, plata y piedras preciosas (1572).
